The Ways of the Samurai Read online

  There are many different martial arts systems to choose from, as well as different fighting styles within each system.

  KENDO

  Kendo, “the Way of the Sword,” is most similar to the training practices of an ancient samurai. Kendoka (kendo students) learn to fence with a lightweight bamboo sword called a shinai. They also wear protective armor: a helmet that looks like a baseball catcher’s mask, a rounded breast-plate, a hip guard, and heavy gloves.

  Many Japanese students practice kendo in gym class. It is fun to play, and matches are exciting to watch. Points are scored only for strikes to four areas: the head (men), forearm (kote), sides of the chest (do), and throat (tsuki—only permitted for contestants over age 16). In order to score, the kendoka must step forward, shout the name of the target area to be hit (this is called the kiai), and strike, all at one time. The purpose of the kiai is to stun the opponent just for a moment. For the brief instant the opponent is frozen, the kendoka strikes.

  The aim in kendo is to reach a state in which the sword, the mind, and the body are one. A true master does not think about where to strike or how to move. Rather, he must concentrate his energy and empty his mind of thought.

  JUDO

  Judo means “the Way of Flexibility, of Yielding.” It is based on the scientific principles of resistance. A brittle branch will break in a storm, for example, but a flexible branch will bend with the wind. Likewise, a bullfighter does not try to stop a charging bull by stepping in front of it and pushing against its head. Rather, to survive, he yields—he steps aside.

  In judo, the student learns to use the strength of the opponent against him or her. If someone strong is pushing you, for example, you can push back with all your strength—and lose. But if you pull the person in the same direction he is pushing, you add your strength to his—and will be able to throw him down.

  Students of judo wear a pajamalike uniform called a gi, consisting of a padded jacket and drawstring trousers, tied with a belt. Belts are different colors, depending on the student’s rank. Beginners wear a white belt, intermediate beginners wear a brown belt, and advanced beginners wear a black belt. It usually takes three years or more to reach this level. Many people mistakenly believe that a person with a black belt is an expert in the martial arts. In fact, there are many rankings of black belt. A low-ranking black belt is considered a serious student who has learned the basics well enough to begin to perfect his or her skill.

  The floor of a judo dojo is covered with mats. Students bow before stepping onto the mats and as they leave. They also bow to the sensei (teacher) and to one another before and after their workout. Classes begin with warm-up exercise, and continue with practice in falling, called ukemi. Then students learn techniques of throwing and holding opponents. Advanced students practice randori, or “free play,” in which they wrestle, as if in a competition.

  Judo students also learn kata and may participate in local or even Olympic contests.

  AIKIDO

  Aikido, “the Way to Harmony with Ki,” is a mental and spiritual discipline that teaches the power of a unified mind and body. The study of aikido can be described as “learning to free the force.”

  An example of how aikido works is called “the unbendable arm.” Stand up and extend your arm, bent slightly at the elbow, and make a fist. Put all of your strength into it. Then ask a friend to bend your arm back toward you. You will see that your friend can do this easily, no matter how hard you resist. Next, extend your arm the same way, only relax it completely. Do not make a fist. Imagine that energy is flowing from your mind through your arm and out of your fingertips, like water in a hose. Imagine that this energy keeps on going to the ends of space. You will find that your friend can hardly move your arm—until you lose your concentration.

  Many of the techniques of aikido are based on the movements of kendo and judo. But the movements are circular, with little use of kicking or punching, and are used purely for defense. There is no attack in aikido. Like judo, aikido techniques use the force of an attacker against him. But the aim is to immobilize the attacker rather than to injure or kill him.

  Students of aikido wear a judo gi with a white or black belt, depending on rank. Higher-ranking students may also wear hakama, or skirtlike trousers. Classes begin with exercises, some of which are meant to help the student control his or her ki—the inner life force. Aikido students practice martial techniques by taking turns with a partner who plays the role of the attacker. They also practice with wooden swords called bokken.

  Kung Fu

  Japan was not the only country in the East to develop systems of martial arts. In fact, many of the techniques used by the samurai were inspired by a Chinese system of self-defense called kung fu. Kung fu was the specialty of the warrior monks of the Shaolin monastery, home of the founder of Zen Buddhism. Movements in the many styles of kung fu are based on the ways of animals: the sturdy posture of the horse, the one-legged stance of the white crane, the defenses of a praying mantis, the antic movements of a monkey.

  Teachers of kung fu are called sifus. Students train with and without weapons, learning to strike, block, and kick. Kung fu katas are called “sets.” Students of kung fu also study the principles of ch’i—the breath or inner life force called ki in Japanese.

  Karate and Tae Kwon Do

  Karate, or “empty hands fighting,” was developed on the island of Okinawa, off the coast of China. The islanders had no swords or spears. So they learned to defend themselves with their hands and feet instead. Karate is the martial art we think of when we picture someone karate chopping a stack of boards. But this is merely a demonstration. Karate students learn to punch and kick, concentrating their energy with a kiai.

  Students wear a lightweight gi, and practice kata that look like dance routines. They also learn to spar.

  The Korean style of karate is called tae kwon do. Today, both karate and tae kwon do are studied worldwide.

  The last Tokugawa Shogun

  9

  THE SAMURAI LEGACY

  The Tokugawa shoguns ruled Japan for more than 250 years. The country was at peace, completely cut off from the rest of the world. But the military threat of the West, coupled with the superiority of Western technology in the mid-19th century, were more than the samurai could resist. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry, an American naval officer, arrived in Japan and forced its opening to Western trade. Soon afterward, the power of the last Tokugawa shogun collapsed, and in 1868, the rule of Japan was restored to the Emperor Meiji. In 1876, the government of Japan banned the wearing of swords by anyone who was not a member of the imperial armed forces. The seat of government was moved to Tokyo, and Japan’s modern constitution was adopted. The days of the samurai were over.

  But the spirit of the samurai lives on in Japan to this day. The values of bushido—honor, loyalty, and self-sacrifice—were nowhere more evident than among the military during World War II. Western soldiers were stunned by the seemingly pointless bravery of the Japanese soldiers. Officers armed only with swords charged enemy machine gunners and were mowed down. Kamikaze pilots, named for the divine winds that had saved their country against foreign invaders so long ago, flew suicide missions, crashing their planes onto enemy ships. Equally disturbing to Westerners was the cruel treatment prisoners-of-war received from their Japanese captors, who believed that the captured soldiers had lost their honor.

  Loyalty to one’s family and superiors is deeply ingrained in Japanese culture. Modern Japanese show the same loyalty to their employers that their samurai ancestors once showed their lords. Suicide is still considered an acceptable response to disgrace.

  Tales of samurai heroes are very much alive in modern Japan, in movies, plays, ghost stories, novels, comic books, cartoons, and video games. The faces of samurai appear on toys and kites, on menus and posters.

  Some of the most famous samurai movies are also popular in America. The best known of these films, The Seven Samurai, was even made into a Western v
ersion, called The Magnificent Seven.

  The ideas of Zen and the discipline of the martial arts have captured the American imagination as well. One example is the story of Star Wars, in which a young warrior, Luke Skywalker, must seek a master, who he finds in a mysterious forest. The gnomelike master, Yoda, is similar to the tengu goblins who taught the hero Yoshitsune. Yoda teaches young Skywalker to master a swordlike weapon, by harnessing The Force”—a mental and spiritual energy that is similar to the Japanese ki.

  “Concentrate!” Yoda urges his young student.

  After much study, hard work, and dedication, Luke becomes an excellent warrior and is able to defeat his enemies.

  Today, the fine arts of the samurai are still practiced in Japan, including calligraphy, flower arrangement, and the tea ceremony. Although these arts have gained some popularity in the West, it is the martial arts of Japan—judo, kendo, and aikido—that are most widely studied. The legacy of the samurai lives on.

  A Painting of a medieval Japanese battle

  The Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima

  October 1561

  In 1490 Japan entered a crucial period of its history known as the sengoku-jidai, or the “Age of the Country at War.” For the next century and a half scarcely a year would pass without a battle or a campaign raging somewhere in the country. The daimyo, or “great names” (erroneously referred to as warlords), who controlled the numerous provinces of Japan, began to vie with one another to increase their domains and the power of their family clans. For a few, those who had the military power and the political strength to challenge, was a chance to become shogun, the military ruler of Japan.

  By the middle of the 16th century, warfare in Japan significantly changed, influenced to a great extent by the ever increasing struggle between the competing daimyo. The samurai armies of the daimyo began to increase in size, augmented by the addition of the “ashigaru”, (or “light-feet”) trained, well disciplined peasant foot soldiers. Castles began to take on a greater military prominence as a means of controlling an area and as a secure base for military supplies and troops. Lastly, an invention from Europe, the firearm, begins to appear in samurai armies from 1540 onwards.

  The power of the daimyo, and thus the power of his clan, stemmed from the territories or provinces they controlled. Their economic wealth was measured by the agricultural production of their lands, and was assessed in “koku.” A koku was the amount of rice it took to feed one man for one year. Koku provided the system of measuring the yearly yield of the rice fields and also determined the number of soldiers the daimyo could raise, arm and feed to defend his lands. From these lands also came the men who would form the daimyo’s army. The samurai, essentially hereditary vassals and retainers of the lord and his clan, were expected to raise and equip a predetermined number of troops from the clan domains they controlled. These would include other samurai of lesser rank as well as the ashigaru. When the daimyo’s army conquered another province or territory, his loyal samurai could expect an increase in their domains, which would in turn increase their personal wealth and the number of men they would now be expected to raise from that domain. The conquest of another territory also meant that a daimyo could increase his wealth and military strength by either making the conquered lord a vassal, thus securing his army and his wealth, or by striking an alliance with the conquered lord for his support in future military operations. Under such a system it is understandable why the daimyo became so fiercely engaged in territorial expansion. One of the more interesting examples of such territorial warfare was between the daimyo’s of the Echigo and Kai provinces.

  In 1553 an intense power struggle began between the Takeda clan of Kai Province, under the leadership of Takeda Shingen, and the Murakami and Nagao clans of Echigo Province, under Uesugi Kenshin. This conflict resulted in a long-standing military rivalry between these two daimyo which lasted until 1564. In 1547 Shingen led the Takeda clan on an invasion of Shinano Province, a rich territory which lay between the western border of Kai and the southern border of Echigo Province. In lieu of being destroyed by the powerful Takeda army, some of the Shinano daimyo, such as the Sanada, submitted to the invader and became Shingen’s vassals. Many of the other Shinano daimyo’s were determined to resist the invaders, the most noted of these being Murakami Yoshikiyo. In 1548 Shingen defeated Murakami in a bloody battle at Ueda-hara. Realizing that he could not withstand Shingen’s power alone, Murakami appealed for aid from his northern neighbor, Uesugi Kenshin, Lord of Echigo Province. Kenshin agreed to give his assistance to Murakami, and with this alliance the two powerful clans of Takeda and Uesugi were brought into direct conflict.

  In assembling the army to aid Murakami, Kenshin sent out the “kashindan,” or “call to arms.” This, it seems, was usually in the form of a detailed letter, sent to all the loyal retainers of the clan. Among the reasons given for calling out the army, there would also be included a listing of their record of obligations, such as the number of troops by type they were to provide, the arms and supplies, and where they were to concentrate their forces. A good example of a surviving kashindan, written by Uesugi Kenshin to Irobe Katsunaga, his “gun-bugyo,” or “chief of staff,” is given below, and aptly describes the situation brought on by Shingen’s invasion of Shinano province.

  “Concerning the disturbances among the various families of Shinano and the Takeda of Kai in the year before last, it is the honorable opinion of Imagawa Yoshimoto of Sumpu that things must have calmed down. However, since this time, Takeda Harunobu’s (Takeda Shingen’s previous name) example of government has been corrupt and bad. However, through the will of the gods and from the kind offices of Yoshimoto, I, Kagetora (Kenshin’s previous name) have very patiently avoided any interference. Now, Harunobu has recently set out for war and it is a fact that he has torn to pieces the retainers of the Ochiai family of Shinano and Katsurayama castle has fallen. Accordingly, he has moved into the so-called Shimazu and Ogura territories for the time being…. My army will be turned in this direction and I, Kagetora will set out for war and meet him half way. In spite of snowstorms or any sort of difficulty we will set out for war by day or night. I have waited fervently. If our family’s allies in Shinano can be destroyed then even the passes of Echigo will not be safe. Now that things have come to such a pass, assemble your pre-eminent army and be diligent in loyalty, there is honorable work to be done at this time.

  With respects,

  Kenshin,

  1557, 2nd month, 16th day”

  In the far northern reaches of Shinano Province, located deep in the heart of the mountain range known as the Japan Alps, lay the wide, flat, triangular shaped plain of Kawanakajima. Known as “the island between the rivers,” because it was bordered on the north by the Saigawa River and on the southwest by the Chikumagawa River which join at the northeast corner of the plain, Kawanakajima became the no man’s land in the duel between Shingen and Kenshin. During the course of their struggle this plain would witness no less than seven encounters between these rivals, of which only five were considered “battles.” The first three of these battles were only preliminary skirmishes compared to the fourth, which is considered “the” battle of Kawanakajima, and remains one of the largest and bloodiest conflicts in Japanese history.

  In September 1553, Shingen advanced far to the north of Shinano Province, reaching the Kawanakajima plain. Here, near a Hachiman shrine, he met Kenshin’s army, but refused battle and withdrew. The two armies came into contact a few miles farther north, but again disengaged from each other. This was the First Battle of Kawanakajima, also known as “The Battle of Fuse.” In October, as Shingen was withdrawing from the area, Kenshin attacked near the site of the Hachiman shrine and defeated the Takeda army.

  The Second Battle of Kawanakajima, also known as “The Battle of the Saigawa,” took place in 1555. Shingen advanced across the Kawanakajima plain to the Saigawa River and made his camp on the Otsuka hill, just south of the river. Kenshin’s army moved from their hi
ll positions down to the river and camped on the opposite bank. For four months the two armies sat facing one another, waiting for the other to make the first move. Eventually, faced with political unrest among their allies, both armies withdrew.

  The Third Battle of Kawanakajima took place in 1557. Shingen again advanced onto the plain and captured Katsurayama, a mountain fortress deep in Uesugi territory. He then attacked Iiyama Castle, which lay along a major road into Echigo and northeast of the Zenko-ji, a hill-top position which a dominant view of the entire plain. Kenshin, whose army was based in Zenko-ji Castle and responded by launching a sortie to relieve Iiyama castle. Shingen promptly withdrew, once again avoiding a major battle with his enemy.

  In September 1561, the two armies engaged in the Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima. Kenshin, weary of the sparring with Shingen, resolved to destroy his arch-rival in one last decisive battle and marched his army of 18,000 towards the north-western periphery of Takeda territory. His objective was Kaizu Castle which controlled Takeda communications north onto the plain of Kawanakajima and south of the plain through the vital mountain passes. Crossing the Saigawa and Chikumagawa Rivers which enclose Kawanakajima, Kenshin took up a fortified position on Saijoyama Mountain overlooking Kaizu Castle. The 150 samurai and their followers who garrisoned Kaizu, although thoroughly surprised by this move, managed, through a system of well organized signal fires, to alert Shingen of the danger. Shingen reacted quickly and moved towards Kaizu with 16,000 men.

  Upon reaching Kawanakajima, Shingen camped on the west bank of the Chikumagawa River near the Amenomiya Ford. Kenshin had hoped to be in a position to fall on his enemy upon the latter’s arrival, but with the river between them a stalemate now ensued. An element of surprise was needed to throw one side off balance if the other were to succeed. Shingen moved first, quickly crossing the Chikumagawa beneath Kenshin’s positions and moving his entire force, increased by reinforcements to 20,000, into Kaizu Castle.